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<h1 class="title">Founding of a Scientific Psychology in Germany</h1>
<div id="table-of-contents">
<h2>Table of Contents</h2>
<div id="text-table-of-contents">
<ul>
<li><a href="#org25eaf04">1. More than just Wundt</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#orgbbf51ca">1.1. Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#org08ecedc">1.1.1. Some Biography </a></li>
<li><a href="#orgddf221c">1.1.2. Scientific Highlights</a></li>
<li><a href="#org6c46160">1.1.3. Philip Boswood Ballard</a></li>
<li><a href="#orgc8c6bda">1.1.4. Carl Stumpf</a></li>
<li><a href="#org6a348dc">1.1.5. Georg Müller</a></li>
<li><a href="#orgb8d22a0">1.1.6. Oswald Külpe</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div id="outline-container-org25eaf04" class="outline-2">
<h2 id="org25eaf04"><span class="section-number-2">1</span> More than just Wundt</h2>
<div class="outline-text-2" id="text-1">
<p>
Any date for the founding of experimental psychology will be arbitrary. Selecting 1879 as the founding of the experimental psychology laboratory at Leipizig emphasizes the introduction of experimental tools, procedures, and an emphasis on testable theories to the growing tradition of empirical thinking in mental and moral philosophy. Similarly arbitrary is the annointing of one man as a founder of experimental psychology. By naming Wilhelm Wundt to this role we commemorate the founding of a laboratory psychology, but we also emphasize a man who is known more for bureaucratic success than scientific achievement. Many of the domains of psychology that are dear to modern minds are ones that Wundt closed off as beyond scientific approach. Memory assessements relying on words, poems, or pictures were too contaminated by learned associations to be effective, pure probes of conscious experience. A reliance on reaction time showed the usefulness of new measurement devices, but Wundt was not a keen experimentalist and was not innovative in new tools for measurement or for expanding the domain of psychological study. And as another consequence of his emphasis on a pure, near simultaneous, report of conscious experience the entire domain of thought and reasoning was beyond approach. For the same reason, experimental subjects should be trained in introspection, but not in the content about which they are introspecting, e.g. music. To study musical perception required, according to Wundt, introspectors who were musically naive. Wundt carried strong theoretical prejudices, which often determined his scientific positions more than empircial evidence. Convinced of the primacy of visual experience and images Wundt labeled any evidence at variance with this idea to be axiomatically the product of bad experimental technique.
</p>
<p>
It is clear then that by elevating Wundt to the role of founder of the field, we are giving priority to one aspect of our science: its development as an experimental discipline; but ignoring many other aspects of its early development as a science. Through the examples of some of Wundt's contemporaries we can see how early scientific psychology was enriched by additional approaches and different strengths. In this chapter four of these early German contemporaries are highlighted.
</p>
</div>
<div id="outline-container-orgbbf51ca" class="outline-3">
<h3 id="orgbbf51ca"><span class="section-number-3">1.1</span> Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)</h3>
<div class="outline-text-3" id="text-1-1">
<p>
<img src="./images/hermanEbbinghaus.jpg" alt="hermanEbbinghaus.jpg" /> <sup><a id="fnr.1" class="footref" href="#fn.1">1</a></sup>
</p>
<p>
Hermann Ebbinghaus can be regarded as a bit of a dreamer. He came to psychology through a meander in the book stalls of Paris, and his methodological insight through the poetry of Alice in Wonderland. He his however a critical and seminal figure. He was one of the first to begin to pry psychology from the conceptual straight-jacket in which Wundt had laced it. It is a common misconception to see Ebbinghaus as a one-hit wonder, but in addition to revolutionizing memory research (and indirectly encouraging psychologists to think more creatively about whether they could study mental phenomena more broadly) he was also a critical early worker in the field of intelligence, spread the necessaries of psychological research by founding three separate university laboratories, and broadened the disemination of psychological knowledge (especially thinking outside Wundtian boundaries) through the founding of an important experimental psychology journal (that still exists to this day <sup><a id="fnr.2" class="footref" href="#fn.2">2</a></sup>).
</p>
</div>
<div id="outline-container-org08ecedc" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="org08ecedc"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.1</span> Some Biography <sup><a id="fnr.3" class="footref" href="#fn.3">3</a></sup></h4>
<div class="outline-text-4" id="text-1-1-1">
<p>
Hermann Ebbinghaus was born in Germany to a wealthy family. His father was a merchant, and Hermann was a good student going on to the Gymnasium (which is the type of secondary school intended for University bound students). He attended three universities: Bonn, Berlin, and Halle. It is regarded as a successful innovation of the German University system that their concept of <i>Wissenschaft</i> put up few barriers to transferring between institutions, and thus students were able to seek out and get the education that best suited them even when that varied over their university careers. The Franco-Prussian war lasted for about one year when Ebbinghaus was 20 and he was a soldier. By 23 he had obtained his PhD in philosophy with a thesis <sup><a id="fnr.4" class="footref" href="#fn.4">4</a></sup> on Hartmann's philosophy of the unconscious <sup><a id="fnr.5" class="footref" href="#fn.5">5</a></sup>. We can infer that Ebbinghaus was a bit indeterminate about what form his career was to take as he spent the next few years in France and England as a student and a teacher. He is 30 when he returns for his Habilitation in Berlin (essentially a second PhD thesis then required of all academicians in the German speaking system). This research is his <i>Gedachtnis</i>, which is published in 1885. Its importance results in his being appointed a professor. The book is important in two regards: one it provides important objective results on human memory. Perhaps more importantly, it provides an example of how a domain of human psychology formally thought to be impossible to rigourously investigate could in fact be pursued by investigative creativity. From Berlin to Breslau to Halle Ebbinghaus developed psychological laboratories at three different universities. He died, relatively young (59), of pneumonia.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="outline-container-orgddf221c" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="orgddf221c"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.2</span> Scientific Highlights</h4>
<div class="outline-text-4" id="text-1-1-2">
<p>
Ebbinghaus viewed Gustav Fechner as his inspiration, and dedicated his <i>Gedachtnis</i> to him (<i>“Ich hab' es nur von Euch.”</i>). The story told in Ebbinhaus's obituary is that his familiarity with Fechner was due to a chance finding of Fechner's Psychophysis; the discovery the chance result of a stroll on along the second hand book stalls that then lined the Seine in Paris. Ebbinghaus's own take on the history of psychology (and the source of his famous line that a long past and a short history can be found in the introduction to his <i>Abriss der Psychologie</i> <sup><a id="fnr.6" class="footref" href="#fn.6">6</a></sup>.
</p>
<p>
One of the challenges that was thought to face memory work in an era when a scientific method for psychology was preoccupied with pure introspections of conscious experience was how to disentangle memory per se from all the contaminating associations that decorate every term and every image with which we are familiar. These are various and would work to make any conventional memory assessment hopelessly confounded by unique, and unknowable, individual experiences. Ebbinhaus however hit upon the idea of using nonsense, pronounceable syllables. These, presumably unique in the subject's experience, would be clean and would permit memory to be measured without contamination (an excellent short video on the memory methodology of Ebbinghaus is available <a href="https://youtu.be/TGGr5Uc8_Bw">here</a>.) Exactly how Ebbinghaus came up with this idea is uncertain, but much lore explains it by his exposure to English, where he would have been confronted with sound strings that were to him unfamiliar, but necessary to memorize. Perhaps to it was the poetry of Lewis Carrol's Jabberwocky <sup><a id="fnr.7" class="footref" href="#fn.7">7</a></sup>that inspired him with its meaningless neologisms or even the occult expletives of London and Parisian coachmen and cabbies <sup><a id="fnr.3.100" class="footref" href="#fn.3">3</a></sup>.
</p>
<p>
Using himself as the sole research subject Ebbinghaus established the core features of human memory. He noted the effects of primacy and recency. The exponential decay of the forgetting curve is in his work, as his the highly creative methodology that permitted him to measures savings scores. An English translation of his magnum opus can be found <a href="https://archive.org/details/memorycontributi00ebbiuoft">here.</a> But in addition to its direct data, this work was important to the young science for its impact on other practitioners interested in other areas. It showed how one could approach these off-limit domains. To quote Titchener: "It is not too much to say that the recourse to nonsense syllables, as a means to the study of associaton, marks the most considerable advance, in this chapter of psychology, since the time of Aristotle."
</p>
<p>
While know for his memory work, a less appreciated contribution of Ebbinghaus was his development of an early intelligence test that was directly influential on other later intelligence psychologists.
</p>
<p>
Ebbinghaus had other contributions, besides his classic memory studies.
He was requested to design a test to be used in the German schools to
detect children needing remedial help. This test and its approach was
known to Binet, who drew inspiration from it in designing his
intelligence test. This intelligence test became the Stanford-Binet when
moved to America. He also wrote a very popular and highly readable
textbook of psychology.Was well liked, youthful and full of humor.
</p>
<p>
Question How can you use the methods and theory of Wundt to study higher
functions, such as memory?
</p>
<p>
mem question This was a real dilemma for the Wundt school. Because
everything had an association. Everything you would want someone to
remember was something they already knew and that would introduce huge
biases and uncontrollable variability into the measurement process.
</p>
<p>
Ebbinghaus's Inspiration Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
</p>
<p>
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
</p>
<p>
All mimsy were the borogoves,
</p>
<p>
And the mome raths outgrabe.
</p>
<p>
jabberwocky Does anyone recognize the source? Lewis Carroll: Through the
Looking Glass and What Alice Found There. Published 1872 Some people
think this was an inspiration to Ebb's use of nonsense syllables.
</p>
<p>
Ebbinghaus Memory Test I will show you a sequence of three letter long
letter strings. After I flash them on the screen you are to write them
down. Then, I will show them again and you will see how many you got
right, and we will average the class.
</p>
<p>
Ebb Meth Comments His method was a real tour de force of insight and effort. He conceived that by using nonsense syllables he would be able to remove the effects of association, but that he would still be able to apply something like the methods he had read about in Fechner's book. He wrote out all these items on cards. He used a metronome to present them at a controlled rate. He could draw from the box of cards to get a random sample. He had only one subject, himself. He tried to control all aspects of his life to make himself consistent in testing. This led to his discovering the primacy effect, recency effect, the span of memory and forgetting rates. Also demonstrated something called the savings rate. You memorize a list and later on you see how many trials it takes you to relearn the list. The decrease in the number of trials is the savings. The change in savings rate over time gave him a measure to use for determining how fast a memory trace is weakening. Otherwise, you only have a measure of what you know and what you don't. So you can see the combination of sheer hard work with really innovative methods.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="outline-container-org6c46160" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="org6c46160"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.3</span> Philip Boswood Ballard</h4>
<div class="outline-text-4" id="text-1-1-3">
<p>
Interesting tidbit mentioned by Thom Carr on a visit to Waterloo in March 2017. Studied memory using poetry, and concluded that it could get better after a gap. Here is the work: <a href="https://archive.org/stream/obliviscenceremi02ball#page/n14/mode/1up">https://archive.org/stream/obliviscenceremi02ball#page/n14/mode/1up</a>
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<p>
Of course it could well be stochastic. But I should look at this at some point.
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<div id="outline-container-orgc8c6bda" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="orgc8c6bda"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.4</span> Carl Stumpf</h4>
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<div id="outline-container-org6a348dc" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="org6a348dc"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.5</span> Georg Müller</h4>
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<div id="outline-container-orgb8d22a0" class="outline-4">
<h4 id="orgb8d22a0"><span class="section-number-4">1.1.6</span> Oswald Külpe</h4>
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<div id="footnotes">
<h2 class="footnotes">Footnotes: </h2>
<div id="text-footnotes">
<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.1" class="footnum" href="#fnr.1">1</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
Herman Ebbinghaus photo <a href="http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/vlpimages/images/img6059.jpg">credit</a>.
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<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.2" class="footnum" href="#fnr.2">2</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
The journals home page is: <a href="https://us.hogrefe.com/products/journals/zeitschrift-fuer-psychologie">https://us.hogrefe.com/products/journals/zeitschrift-fuer-psychologie</a> and an editorial with some history and some discussion of the name change can be found here: <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409.215.1.1">http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409.215.1.1</a> .
</p></div></div>
<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.3" class="footnum" href="#fnr.3">3</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
Much good biographical material can be found in Ebbinghaus's obituary in the American Journal of Psychology. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1414874">https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1414874</a>
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<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.4" class="footnum" href="#fnr.4">4</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
The thesis is available on line as a free <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?id=F_RbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP3&lpg=PP3&dq=hartmannsche+philosophie&source=bl&ots=fSI4Z75ZwM&sig=F_LmVyDk30UoKdj-o_z6kb0EvFY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjEq9XVzJrUAhVj0YMKHYecBCUQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=hartmannsche%20philosophie&f=false">book.</a>
</p></div></div>
<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.5" class="footnum" href="#fnr.5">5</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
This book was only recently published: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Unconscious">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Unconscious</a>. An English translation is available <a href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophyuncon04hartgoog#page/n3/mode/1up">here</a>. According to the foreword by the translator the book was published in 1868 by the then 27 year old philosopher.
</p></div></div>
<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.6" class="footnum" href="#fnr.6">6</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophyuncon04hartgoog#page/n3/mode/1up">https://archive.org/stream/philosophyuncon04hartgoog#page/n3/mode/1up</a>
</p></div></div>
<div class="footdef"><sup><a id="fn.7" class="footnum" href="#fnr.7">7</a></sup> <div class="footpara"><p class="footpara">
A portion of Lewis Carrol's Jabberwocky from Alice Through the Looking Glass.
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<blockquote>
<p>
</p>
<p>
Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
</p>
<p>
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
</p>
<p>
All mimsy were the borogoves,
</p>
<p>
And the mome raths outgrabe.
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<div id="postamble" class="status">
<p class="author">Author: Britt Anderson</p>
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